25. Why China's Feudal Period Was So Long
From the earliest times down to the middle of the 19th century,
Chinese society went through three stages: primitive society, slave so-
ciety, and feudal society. The Xia dynasty ruled over a slave society.
In the Shang period there was definitely a slave system, as inscrip-
tions on oracle bones showed how slaves were used and ill-treated.
During the Western Zhou(1066 - 771 BC)or Eastern Zhou(770 - 256
BC) Chinese society entered the feudal stage. This social system was
to last more than 2,500 years until it was shaken by foreign cannons
during the Opium War.
During this long period, there were many changes in dynasties;
there were many large-scale wars and many peasant uprisings; and for
a long time China was under the rule of national minorities. But the
social system remained unchanged--it was essentially feudal though
seeds of capitalism did appear.
Compared with Europe, where feudalism lasted about one thou-
sand years, China had a much longer feudal period. Many causes have
been mentioned. Among them are the following:
1. A predominant natural economy. This was the economic foun-
dation of the feudal system. Throughout the country the peasants,
who made up over 90 percent of the population, produced and made
nearly everything for themselves, and not for the market. They grew
rice or wheat or corn, and they also raised pigs, goats and chickens,
and grew vegetables. They grew cotton and hemp, and wove very
coarse cloth with their handlooms. They made their own tools, furni-
ture and other things they used. In short, there were very few things
that they had to buy from shops in town. Even if they wanted to buy
something, in most cases they had no money, because they had very
few things that they could sell.
The landlords were rich enough to buy things, but as they made
up a very small portion of the population, they could not consume
much. And it was not their habit to invest their money in production.
They squandered their money, bought more land with their money, or
left their money to their children.
As a result, the market for industrial products was limited, and
so was the source of capital. These limitations made it difficult for in-
dustry(or handicrafts)and commerce to develop quickly. It followed
that the industrial producers and merchants were weak both economi-
cally and politically. They were closely linked to or controlled by the
landlords,
Besides, the rulers of most dynasities considered agriculture more
important than industry or commerce, and made policies favorable to
landlords and unfavorable to merchants.
These factors slowed down the growth of capitalism and kept
feudalism going.
2.A stable feudal political system. For about 2,000 years from
the Qin to the end of the Qing dynasty, the country was governed
more or less in the same way. There were modifications from dyansty
to dynasty in the organization and workings of the government, but
there were very 'few fundamental changes in the main structure of the
political system. All powers were in the hands of the emperor alone,
who was assisted by a group of ministers led by the prime minister.
Local governors were appointed by the central government. The com-
mon people had no democratic rights at all. No official was elected and
no organ in the government represented them. But the people's inter-
ests were taken into consideration in two ways, though indirectly. One
was the system of supervision. There were high-ranking officials
whose duty it was to inspect and examine the work and conduct of all
administrators and punish those who had abused their powers. The
other was the civil service examination system. Scholars who had
passed certain examinations were given government posts, and some
of them understood the problems and wishes of the people.
In spite of its undemocratic nature and many faults, this political
system seemed to suit the social conditions on the whole. Except
when there were wars or great political upheavals, the country was ef-
fectively governed and law and order were maintained.
3. A highly-developed feudal culture. Chinese culture was highly
developed in the feudal period. It played an important part in keeping
the country unified, though it had such a large area and such a huge
size of population;in maintaining the continuity of Chinese history;
and in resisting the cultures of those nationalities which at one time or
another ruled China. During the period of Southern and Northern Dy-
nasties and the Yuan and Qing, China was partly or wholly under the
rule of national minorities for about 600 years. Invariably the military
conquerors were conquered by Chinese culture l They learned to rule
China in the Chinese way and accepted Chinese culture. This fact
showed that advanced Chinese culture was more powerful than mili-
tary or political forces.
The core of Chinese culture was Confucianism. It was made the
state thought in the Western Han. After that most scholars, officials,
and even emperors, professed to follow it, and some truthfully fol-
lowed it, in their conduct and work. As Confucianism laid special em-
phasis on moral principles, humane government and education, its in-
fluence was mainly positive. It also stressed the importance of loyalty
to the ruler and filial piety to one's parents. These ideas were helpful
to the stability of feudal rule. Confucianism valued ancient traditions,
such as the institutions of the Western Zhou, and gave great respect to
ancient sages like Yao, Shun, Yu, King Wen, King Wu and the Duke
of Zhou, taking their rule as the model for all ages. In other words, it
taught people to look backwards. This may have fostered the conser-
vative tendency of the Chinese people.
Besides Confucianism there were two other influential philoso-
phies:Taoism and Buddhism. Taoism advocated an escape from social
duties, and the enjoyment of freedom, quietude and peace. This atti-
tude could do no harm to feudal rule. Buddhism urged people to be
passive, to give up all desires, to do good things so that they might
have a better lot in their next lives. This doctrine could only make its
believers obedient and tolerant, instead of fighting against oppression
and exploitation.
It is clear that Chinese culture of the feudal period, especially
Confucianism, gave moral guidance and support to the feudal system.
It made China one of the most advanced countries in the world for
nearly 2,000 years, but it hindered social change or progress during
the last stage of the period.
These economic, political and cultural factors combined to make
the feudal period last so long in China. There were of course other
factors. One of them was China's lack of contact with the outside
world. There was some foreign influence on Chinese culture. Bud-
dhism, for instance, came from India. But foreign influence never
changed the character of Chinese culture. Chinese society and culture
developed along their own path until the outbreak of the Opium War
in 1840.